PhilSlave
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ORIGINAL: WyldHrt
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I ask you seriously, show me the scale of these great feminine discoveries in any field besides "woman's studies". Google is your friend, dude. Here are just a few.
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Around 1910 astronomer Henrietta Leavitt was studying star-field photo plates. She thought about certain 'blinking' stars - Cepheid variables - named after Delta Cephei, the first one found.
These particular stars were similar but varied a bit in `absolute magnitude' - their real brightness, and in their `blink rates'.
In 1912 Leavitt published. She said the brightest Cepheids were blinking slow while the dimmer ones were fast; and this was a regular, graduated phenomenon.
So now the Cepheid's nearness can be calculated because, knowing its absolute magnitude or real brightness from its blink rate, we'll know that extra dimness is due to distance.
Importance
For the first time it was possible to estimate the distance of faraway stars. Although establishment science still thought the Universe was the Milky Way, Henrietta Leavitt had discovered the way to look further.
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Cecilia Payne 's thesis of 1925, for the first Astronomy Ph.D ever awarded by Harvard, was under pressure from authority before it was even submitted.
Payne had completed studies at Cambridge (UK) but as a female was not allowed a degree, so she went to America.
A brilliant worker and student in Physics and Astronomy she was also denied a degree in Physics (because she was female) and turned instead to Astronomy.
However, her boss, Dr. Henry Norris Russell, insisted that her analysis of the spectrum of the Sun was incorrect. Establishment opinion, including Norris Russell's, was that all stars consisted mainly of Iron!
Why? Because the Earth was.
Payne's more careful (and courageous) analysis said that Hydrogen was the major component of the Sun.
Shamefully Dr. Henry Norris Russell insisted that Cecilia write a P.S to her thesis: that her real results were "clearly untrue."
Even more shamefully, Norris Russell and his male confreres conspired to impede and block Payne's career when it eventually became clear that she had been right about the composition of stars.
The male establishment felt justified in sabotaging Cecilia's life because she was a) female; b) friendly with Jewish and Black students (America's elite, like all elites, was racist and sexist - then and now); and c) more efficient and gifted than they themselves were.
Importance
Even our own Sun was a mystery at that time. Cecilia Payne revealed a basic truth about the processes of the Universe - leading to subsequent discoveries of `nuclear' actions.
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EarIy in 1939 Lise Meitne, a Jewish girl from Vienna, published the first account of nuclear fission.
She was in Sweden, in exile, and had been guiding her fellow student and dearest friend Otto Hahn, a chemist who'd teamed up with the shy young Meitner when she was studying under Max Planck in Berlin.
Hahn, Lise's earliest studentship "friend", profited throughout his career from Lise's generous sharing of her genius.
[From readings it seems the pretty but shy young Lise had fallen in love with Hahn, a dashing character, and could never bring herself to break the ties of that sentiment, even after Hahn suddenly married an `Aryan' German girl and later even helped a nazi, Hess, to get Lise fired from the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute where they all worked, in line with Hitler's anti-Jewish policies.]
Forced to leave Germany, Lise Meitner was still guiding Hahn by `remote control' by letter from Sweden. She'd recommended bombarding uranium with neutrons, furthering the experiments of Fermi in Rome.
When Hahn and his colleagues were perplexed by unexplained transmutations after the experiment, Lise, with her nephew Robert Frisch, worked out that the residue was the result of low-level splitting of uranium atoms: nuclear fission.
[ Hahn had thought that neutrons hitting uranium atoms might result in heavier metals as a residue. However Lise was familiar with Einstein's formula `E=m.c2' and realized that the lighter stuff found by Hahn had actually been transmuted by a "nuclear" process. I.e. an action taking place within the nucleus of an atom, hitherto thought to be indivisible. ]
Importance
Although kept secret from us ordinary people, this was revolutionary.
It showed that not only were there huge energies available from "fission" but the energy could be produced either slowly and gradually, for industrial purposes or, as was later ascertained, quasi-instantaneously, for use as a weapon - a bomb.
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Alice Stewart had to run gauntlets of hostile male professors and aggressive male students before qualifying at Girton College, Cambridge. However she was soon first woman member of the Association of Physicians and youngest fellow of the Royal College of Physicians.
During WWII her brilliant work for the Medical Research Council helped establish the Oxford Survey as source of valuable and controversial data.
She investigated effects of exposure to TNT, to carbon tetrachloride, and then, post 1945, the connection between childhood leukemia and mothers' exposure to x-rays. All of her - truthful - results were bitterly opposed by powerful vested interests; i.e. by many of the establishment's physicists and radiobiologists and most strongly by the corrupt International Commission for Radiation Protection. (ICRP)
In the USA she was invited by Professor T.F Mancuso to help with the Hanford Survey of safety issues around plutonium production. Her results - revealing 10 times the cancer incidence predicted - infuriated the US Gov't, which immediately fired Prof Mancuso, suppressed the original report and banned future use of independent consultants.
Fighting on, using data from Oxford & Hanford Surveys, Alice Stewart showed that the ICRP regulations were inadequate, by proving that adult sensitivity to radiation was also ten times higher than the ICRP pretended.
The British Government, always corrupt, (bureaucrats' & politicos' normal state), cut off all funds for her research and attacked her whenever possible. However by this time she was being supported by grants from N American institutions.
Importance
Alice Stewart's struggles to get minimal safety standards were continually attacked by greedy and murderous gov'ts and arrogant, corrupt male scientists.
Check - '04 `Risks need revising', and '09 `IAEA still gagging the truth'
"Between 1945 and 1980, the United States, U.S.S.R, United Kingdom, France and China exploded 504 nuclear devices ... These nuclear tests infused vast quantities of radioactive material into the world's atmosphere, which was widely dispersed and then deposited as global fallout." [Wiki]
"The injured of Chernobyl are today, years after the catastrophe, not even born yet" [around the world]. Ulrich Beck
"We have already doubled the level of background radiation today. What is the effect on human genes? That is the really important question: it won't show up for two or three more generations." Alice Stewart
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Chien-Shiung Wu - born in Shanghai and trained at Nanking National University - moved to USA where she taught at Smith & Princeton before research at Columbia. She championed woman's right to femininity and freedom of thought, fighting pressures to be merely the `attractive female' on campus. She was "openly critical of male chauvinism in science".
In 1956 she decided to test the "Law of Conservation of Parity" that claimed "universal forces are not aware of "left / right" or "positive / negative charge" or "N / S magnetic polarity"
[Most male-dominated quantum physicists supported the "Law of Parity" - Richard P Feynman made a $50 bet that Parity would be conserved.]
Chien-Shiung Wu tested it in low-energy electron movements - not dominated by strong outside influences and micro/macro threshold forces. A cobalt variety will leak electrons under certain conditions and Chien-Shiung Wu proved that these charged "particles" were repelled only by the South pole of a magnet.
Importance
For the first time we knew that electromagnetic states - both building blocks and supporting forces of material Universe - actually slope from "left - right" and from "positive - negative" and from "N - S".
[ Not known att - to be ingredient in UEF Theory ]
The science elite - forced to recognize overthrow of "Parity Laws" - chose to give Nobel prize, not to Chien-Shiung Wu, but to T-D Lee and C.N Yang, male physicists who'd speculated on the possibility without coming to firm conclusions.
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Vera Rubin's independence was disapproved of by the Church and, because she was a woman, she was not allowed into offices of the Applied Physics Laboratory when George Gamow invited her to visit. The elite's sexist chauvinism forced Rubin and Gamow to conference in the lobby.
Despite this she decided to study the movements of galaxies and in 1970, with Kent Ford, she began to look at Andromeda's M31, our nearest big neighbour.
The spiralling galactic disks should have been moving fast at the center and much slower towards the rim (like in a whirlpool). But that wasn't happening!
Rubin's discovery meant that either `gravity' was misbehaving at the large scale of the galaxy, or maybe the real galaxy extended much further out and was made of 'dark matter' that did not radiate light.
If so, then Rubin had (apparently) found something the establishment didn't know needed to exist - Dark matter.
[ From the data she also concluded that our local galaxies were being drawn towards Pegasus - this was also derided by the establishment. It was finally confirmed - by male astronomers - only about 20 years later. ]
Importance
For the first time scientists were able to realize invisible materials and forces existed in the Universe. And that these were probably the major influence in the Universe.
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1973 - Beatrice Tinsley wrote a paper [Gott, Gunn, Schramm, Tinsley - Astrophysical Journal 1974] in which she and her colleagues analysed the cosmic data.
The establishment's preferred view was of a 'closed' universe - doomed to collapse. That suited both the Churches and the science / social Elite.
Astronomers of the day were forcing their data to support the 'closed' Universe idea. They classified stars in giant elliptical galaxies as young, hydrogen-fed stars, so as to make their age and distance fit a short-term 'doomed' Universe.
Tinsley challenged this; she said they were red giants and therefore older. Some years later (1974) Jay Frogel - astronomer of Ohio State - determined their infra-red signatures. They were red giants.
But before that happened Tinsley and her team sought the density parameter of all the matter in the Universe - a figure called Omega. If it was greater than 1, the Universe would eventually collapse - a Big Crunch.
But if Omega is less than 1, the Universe is open and will expand forever - the Long Journey.
The four colleagues analysed the three available attributes of the Universe:-
a) checking the brightness of the Universe: Omega = 0.01 (low, because some matter is 'dark'];
b) checking the 'gravitational' movement of the Universe: Omega = 0.1;
c) checking the deuterium content of the Universe compared to normal hydrogen.
Deuterium = transition stage between hydrogen and helium. Supposedly created in a putative `Big Bang', it's taken as an accurate indicator of early density. If deuterium had been scarce - (less than 1 : 1,000,000 or so) - the Universe might've been dense and 'closed'.
In 1973 the Copernicus satellite measured absorption lines in interstellar light (so showing make-up of matter `in-between'). Deuterium was at least 1 : 50,000, and therefore Omega = 0.1
But it took a while for Tinsley to find a journal to accept their paper. The establishment's "Nature" refused it, saying it was "inappropriate" - Ha!
It seems the establishment's propaganda need for a doomed universe is still too strong.
Importance
The Universe is a one-off. And it is 'open' - probably expanding forever.
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Maria Mayer, 1906-1972 was a German born physicist who later relocated to the United States. She is famous for her work on the shell structure of the atom and determined the shell configuration for where the electrons are placed. Her model is the one most teachers use within the classroom to explain the composition of the atom. She also assisted on the atomic bomb project, and received a Nobel Prize for her contribution in the separation of the isotopes of uranium.
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Rachel Carson was born in 1907 and died in 1964. Carson was an important environmentalist who was largely responsible for making society aware of the effects of DDT on crops and consequently on water systems. She was named to the Ecology Hall of Fame and to the Top Twenty Most Influential Scientists and Thinkers for the Twentieth Century. Her books still sell well worldwide.
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Two famous women scientists, both revered for their work in cancer research are Gertrude B. Elien, an American who lived from 1918 to 1999 and and Jewel Plumber Cobb, 1924 to the present, also from the USA. Elion was responsible for discovering many anti-cancer drugs and won a Nobel Prize for her work. Cobb, a biologist, studied the bodily effects that chemotherapy had on normal non-cancerous cells.
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Perhaps one of the world's best-known famous woman scientists is Jane Goodall. Born in England, the ecologist is famous for her work with the African Gombe chimpanzees, which she continued for over thirty years. She was the first to discover the use of tools amongst animals and currently spends three hundred days a year lecturing and encouraging young people to improved the environment for all living creatures.
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Rachel Zimmerman from Ontario, Canada is the inventor of the Blissymbol Printer, a device that allows non-speaking people, like those afflicted with severe physical disabilities like cerebral palsy, to communicate. The program user corresponds by pointing to various symbols on a main page board with a special pad. When the user touches the symbols, the "Blissymbol Printer" translates them into a written language and the user can then communicate VIA e-mail. This incredible invention is providing non-speaking people with a voice of their own.
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Ruzena Bajcsy Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of California at Berkeley In 1979 Bajcsy helped create robots that could sense and respond to their environment. She now heads an innovative institute where researchers develop smart low-power sensors that both compute and communicate. Bajcsy believes the sensors will be "the next revolution in technology." They can monitor energy consumption in buildings, watch for forest fires, or keep tabs on people by, for example, calling 911 if a person with Alzheimer's disease wanders from his home.
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Jacqueline K. Barton Professor of Chemistry, California Institute of Technology Barton discovered that DNA conducts electric current but not as well—or not at all—when its tight organization is disrupted by damage from certain chemicals or mutations. That finding should allow researchers to look for mutations, using chips made of strands of DNA attached to gold on silicon wafers. Barton is investigating whether nature has developed tactics to cope with such damage: "Are there important sites that are insulated? Where are electrons funneled? This makes us think about DNA in an entirely new way."
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Elizabeth Blackburn Professor of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California at San Francisco Each time a cell divides, its chromosomes shorten slightly. To protect vital genes from being lopped off, chromosomes are capped with telomeres, blocks of DNA and protein. Telomeres are maintained by telomerase, an enzyme discovered by Blackburn (see story Why science must adapt to women) and biologist Carol Greider. In most healthy cells, telomerase production eventually ceases, telomeres whittle down, and the cell dies. Blackburn's research has shown that in cancer cells, the enzyme never shuts off, and cells become immortal: "Telomerase is reactivated in about 90 percent of tumors. It is a great favorite of cancer cells," and thus a target for new drugs.
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The Nobel Prize in Physics 1963
Maria Goeppert Mayer
1903
Marie Curie
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2009
Ada E. Yonath
1964
Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin
1935
Irène Joliot-Curie
1911
Marie Curie
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2009
Elizabeth H. Blackburn
2009
Carol W. Greider
2008
Françoise Barré-Sinoussi
2004
Linda B. Buck
1995
Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard
1988
Gertrude B. Elion
1986
Rita Levi-Montalcini
1983
Barbara McClintock
1977
Rosalyn Yalow
1947
Gerty Cori
The Nobel Prize in Literature 2009
Herta Müller
2007
Doris Lessing
2004
Elfriede Jelinek
1996
Wislawa Szymborska
1993
Toni Morrison
1991
Nadine Gordimer
1966
Nelly Sachs
1945
Gabriela Mistral
1938
Pearl Buck
1928
Sigrid Undset
1926
Grazia Deledda
1909
Selma Lagerlöf
The Nobel Peace Prize 2004
Wangari Maathai
2003
Shirin Ebadi
1997
Jody Williams
1992
Rigoberta Menchú Tum
1991
Aung San Suu Kyi
1982
Alva Myrdal
1979
Mother Teresa
1976
Betty Williams
1976
Mairead Corrigan
1946
Emily Greene Balch
1931
Jane Addams
1905
Bertha von Suttner
The Prize in Economic Sciences 2009
Elinor Ostrom
Women's Studies, my ass.
Still not many after all that! No offence, but, I think only using Four men I can contribute more than all the women you have mentioned to humanities technological growth.
Archimedes
Da Vinci
Newton
Priestley
could have gone with multitude of other combinations of 4 and obviously 1000's of males.
;)
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RE: Scot's Children believe women need a slap! - 
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They are talking about pre-teens and tweens..... 
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